Bulgaria and Turkey in the Cold War
Introduction
Some recent readings scratched an itch for a side project on a what-if clash between Bulgaria and Turkey during the early Cold War period. We will start with a look at both countries in the early Cold War period (1950s), with the option of extending this project to the later period.
Some recent readings scratched an itch for a side project on a what-if clash between Bulgaria and Turkey during the early Cold War period. We will start with a look at both countries in the early Cold War period (1950s), with the option of extending this project to the later period.
Bulgaria
Bulgaria was firmly in the Soviet sphere of influence after the Second World War as a member of the Warsaw Pact, which the British described as 'the most reliable of their European satellites'. Bulgaria's historical links with Russia go back to the country's independence from the Ottomans in the 19th century, although it found itself on opposite sides during both World Wars. Even if it didn't formally declare war against the Soviet Union, it switched sides as the Red Army swept through the Balkans in 1944.
Its strategic role was to defend the southern flank of the Warsaw Pact, where it faced Greece and Turkey, old adversaries now both in NATO. Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed a friendship and mutual assistance treaty in 1947 (without consulting the Soviet Union). However, Bulgaria sided with Stalin after his split with Tito and took some defensive measures against a potential US/Yugoslav attack when Tito accepted limited military support from the US.
Unlike other Warsaw Pact nations, the Soviets didn't station troops on Bulgarian soil. They relied on advisors, trainers and the KGB, which, coupled with historical links, made Bulgaria a reliable ally. Most senior Bulgarian officers spent at least some time being trained in Soviet military academies, and wartime officers were purged. Bulgaria sent advisors and equipment to communist regimes across the world. However, they did not participate in combat operations like the Cubans in Angola. There is some evidence that Bulgaria supplied weapons to Kurdish separatists, always a sensitive issue in Turkey.
The Bulgarian People’s Army (Bulgarska Narodna Armiya – BNA) consisted of Ground Forces, Air Force, Navy and Border Troops. It is estimated that Bulgaria had 180,000 regular troops in 1951. At its peak in 1955, it had 12 rifle and two tank divisions, falling to six rifle and two tank divisions by the start of the 1960s. Operationally, Bulgarian tank forces were deployed as brigades to reflect the need for more nimble units in rugged terrain. The 2nd, 7th and 17th Rifle Divisions were high-readiness divisions and had an attached airborne battalion.
The structure was similar to the Soviet organisation, just on a smaller scale. The country was divided into three military districts (Sofia, Plovdiv and Sliven). Conscripts served two years from age 19 (three in the Navy) and then went into the reserve. While part of the Warsaw Pact, the BNA played a limited role, reflecting the lower strategic position and the armed forces' limited combat value. It received older equipment than other Warsaw Pact nations, and most rifle divisions were still foot infantry until motorisation in the 1960s. The T34 tank was still the primary MBT when other Warsaw Pact armies received or made the T54/55. The 1936 uniform and helmet was still in service until the 1970s. In a conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, the Bulgarians could expect support from Romania and the Soviet Odesa and Kyiv Military Districts.
Bulgaria was firmly in the Soviet sphere of influence after the Second World War as a member of the Warsaw Pact, which the British described as 'the most reliable of their European satellites'. Bulgaria's historical links with Russia go back to the country's independence from the Ottomans in the 19th century, although it found itself on opposite sides during both World Wars. Even if it didn't formally declare war against the Soviet Union, it switched sides as the Red Army swept through the Balkans in 1944.
Its strategic role was to defend the southern flank of the Warsaw Pact, where it faced Greece and Turkey, old adversaries now both in NATO. Bulgaria and Yugoslavia signed a friendship and mutual assistance treaty in 1947 (without consulting the Soviet Union). However, Bulgaria sided with Stalin after his split with Tito and took some defensive measures against a potential US/Yugoslav attack when Tito accepted limited military support from the US.
Unlike other Warsaw Pact nations, the Soviets didn't station troops on Bulgarian soil. They relied on advisors, trainers and the KGB, which, coupled with historical links, made Bulgaria a reliable ally. Most senior Bulgarian officers spent at least some time being trained in Soviet military academies, and wartime officers were purged. Bulgaria sent advisors and equipment to communist regimes across the world. However, they did not participate in combat operations like the Cubans in Angola. There is some evidence that Bulgaria supplied weapons to Kurdish separatists, always a sensitive issue in Turkey.
The Bulgarian People’s Army (Bulgarska Narodna Armiya – BNA) consisted of Ground Forces, Air Force, Navy and Border Troops. It is estimated that Bulgaria had 180,000 regular troops in 1951. At its peak in 1955, it had 12 rifle and two tank divisions, falling to six rifle and two tank divisions by the start of the 1960s. Operationally, Bulgarian tank forces were deployed as brigades to reflect the need for more nimble units in rugged terrain. The 2nd, 7th and 17th Rifle Divisions were high-readiness divisions and had an attached airborne battalion.
The structure was similar to the Soviet organisation, just on a smaller scale. The country was divided into three military districts (Sofia, Plovdiv and Sliven). Conscripts served two years from age 19 (three in the Navy) and then went into the reserve. While part of the Warsaw Pact, the BNA played a limited role, reflecting the lower strategic position and the armed forces' limited combat value. It received older equipment than other Warsaw Pact nations, and most rifle divisions were still foot infantry until motorisation in the 1960s. The T34 tank was still the primary MBT when other Warsaw Pact armies received or made the T54/55. The 1936 uniform and helmet was still in service until the 1970s. In a conflict between NATO and the Warsaw Pact, the Bulgarians could expect support from Romania and the Soviet Odesa and Kyiv Military Districts.
Bulgarian Military Museum Sofia
The Bulgarian Air Force was Sovietised after WW2 and started to receive the latest Soviet aircraft, including the early jet fighters the Yak-23 and Mig-15. The first 23 Mig-15s arrived in 1951, boxed in crates. More arrived each year after that, totalling more than 100, plus trainers. While there were no open hostilities, the CIA organised incursion flights from Greece. Bulgarian air defences were limited, but Mig-15s made 130 launches in 1954 alone. These incursions had tragic consequences when two Mig-15 pilots shot down an Israeli airliner (Flight LY402) on 27 July 1955, which had strayed into Bulgarian air space. 58 passengers and crew died. The Mig-17 was a significant improvement because of its all-weather capability. These started arriving in 1955, totalling around 74 by the decade's end. Later versions had radar. The Mig-19 was the first supersonic fighter, ideal for air defence. 84 of these arrived between 1957 and 1959. The book has lots of photos and some excellent colour plates.
Bulgaria has a Black Sea coast and developed a small navy after the Second World War. It consisted of small ships for coastal defence and supported the Soviet Black Sea fleet in any attack on Turkey. Soviet naval forces expanded rapidly in the 1950s, with the CIA estimating that they would grow to 300 major surface vessels by 1959, plus around 600 submarines.
Bulgaria has a Black Sea coast and developed a small navy after the Second World War. It consisted of small ships for coastal defence and supported the Soviet Black Sea fleet in any attack on Turkey. Soviet naval forces expanded rapidly in the 1950s, with the CIA estimating that they would grow to 300 major surface vessels by 1959, plus around 600 submarines.
Plovdiv Air Museum
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Turkey
Stalin’s attempt to acquire the Straits after WW2 framed Turkey’s relations with the Soviet Union in the 1950s. It brought them firmly into the US sphere of influence through the Truman Doctrine, which brought the US Sixth Fleet to Turkish ports and a steady flow of equipment when Turkey joined NATO. This relationship cooled with the Cuban missile crisis and the loss of Jupiter missiles on Turkish soil, followed by the Cyprus crisis of 1963-64.
The Turkish armed forces gained some warfighting experience in Korea and joined NATO in 1952. US military equipment started to arrive in modest numbers, including the M47 MBT. The armed forces implemented some reforms, slimming down the largely infantry army and the number of officers. However, progress was slow, with centralised training only introduced in 1954, and literacy was well below NATO standards. The Navy received US and British WW2-era destroyers and submarines in the 1950s. This was adequate when facing the small Bulgarian Navy, but would be reliant on assistance from the US Sixth Fleet in a conflict with the Soviet Union. Air bases were quickly upgraded after 1952 with modern early warning systems and communications. The Air Force received modern jet fighters, including the F84 Thunderjet in 1953/54, and refurbished Canadair Sabres in 1954/56. The first supersonic F-100 Super Sabres started to arrive in 1958. The first female fighter jet pilot to operate under a NATO flag was Leman Bozkurt Altınçekiç, from the Turkish Air Force, in the early 1950s.
The military had a special position in Turkish society and regularly intervened in politics, including a military coup in 1960. The NATO archives include a period film on Turkey and NATO, which shows Turkish soldiers in their WW2-style British battledress. The helmet was still in use as late as the Cyprus intervention in 1974.
Stalin’s attempt to acquire the Straits after WW2 framed Turkey’s relations with the Soviet Union in the 1950s. It brought them firmly into the US sphere of influence through the Truman Doctrine, which brought the US Sixth Fleet to Turkish ports and a steady flow of equipment when Turkey joined NATO. This relationship cooled with the Cuban missile crisis and the loss of Jupiter missiles on Turkish soil, followed by the Cyprus crisis of 1963-64.
The Turkish armed forces gained some warfighting experience in Korea and joined NATO in 1952. US military equipment started to arrive in modest numbers, including the M47 MBT. The armed forces implemented some reforms, slimming down the largely infantry army and the number of officers. However, progress was slow, with centralised training only introduced in 1954, and literacy was well below NATO standards. The Navy received US and British WW2-era destroyers and submarines in the 1950s. This was adequate when facing the small Bulgarian Navy, but would be reliant on assistance from the US Sixth Fleet in a conflict with the Soviet Union. Air bases were quickly upgraded after 1952 with modern early warning systems and communications. The Air Force received modern jet fighters, including the F84 Thunderjet in 1953/54, and refurbished Canadair Sabres in 1954/56. The first supersonic F-100 Super Sabres started to arrive in 1958. The first female fighter jet pilot to operate under a NATO flag was Leman Bozkurt Altınçekiç, from the Turkish Air Force, in the early 1950s.
The military had a special position in Turkish society and regularly intervened in politics, including a military coup in 1960. The NATO archives include a period film on Turkey and NATO, which shows Turkish soldiers in their WW2-style British battledress. The helmet was still in use as late as the Cyprus intervention in 1974.
Istanbul Naval Museum
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Istanbul Air Museum
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Potential conflict
Even before the Cyprus conflict, Greece and Turkey were unstable allies, and Bulgarian planning would have taken this into account. Ethnic Turkish groups in Bulgaria (11-15% of the Bulgarian population) were regarded as suspect, although full-scale assimilation campaigns didn't begin until the 1970s and 1980s. In the 1980s, friction between Turkey and Bulgaria over this issue brought both countries close to war, although the US and Soviets would probably have intervened to stop it.
Turkey had to face the Soviet Union directly on its northern border, a frontier some 620km long. Facing Bulgaria in Thrace was the Turkish 1st Army. A 15-20km deep border zone with Turkey along the 279km long border made intelligence estimates difficult to verify. However, there are obvious invasion routes across the border, and amphibious units were based at Ahtopol, close to the border, which could launch attacks on the Straits. There were extensive fortifications on both sides of the border zone, but once breached, the terrain in Turkish Thrace is primarily open plains. However, access was more manageable from the Greek side over the Evros River, which made it difficult to separate Greece from any conflict. The Turkish Corps based at Corlu would have faced the brunt of any attack from Bulgaria. While there are some defensive positions around Edirne and the wooded Yildiz Daglari, the Turkish strategy would likely follow the historical plan of a fighting withdrawal to the 20km wide Catalea position in front of Istanbul. There were additional fortifications defending the Thracian beaches near the Straits from amphibious assault.
We don’t know a great deal about Soviet plans during this period. Soviet and CIA documents from the 1962 exercise Hemus suggest two separate axes of advance towards the Turkish Straits and Greece. These were named the 1st and 2nd Balkan Fronts, with a 3rd Front in Romania as a reserve in Soviet sources, although Bulgarian sources refer to just one combined front. This included an airborne element deploying the 98th Guards Airborne Division from the Odessa Military District and two divisions earmarked for amphibious operations. Soviet Naval Infantry would land, possibly east of Istanbul, followed by a Soviet motor rifle regiment after initial assault landings. Defensive operations involved falling back on the Balkan Mountain range. Offensively, the plans assumed the capture of Thrace, then, after being reinforced from the Kyiv Military District, advanced to Ankara, and then, a sweep to the Syrian border.
In addition, there is the more complex issue of the deployment of Soviet strategic and nuclear forces in this theatre. By the 1950s, the Soviets had nuclear-capable medium bombers (Tu-4 and Tu-16) with the range to hit targets across the region. By the late 1950s, their inventory included long-range bombers like the Tu-95 Bear.
Even before the Cyprus conflict, Greece and Turkey were unstable allies, and Bulgarian planning would have taken this into account. Ethnic Turkish groups in Bulgaria (11-15% of the Bulgarian population) were regarded as suspect, although full-scale assimilation campaigns didn't begin until the 1970s and 1980s. In the 1980s, friction between Turkey and Bulgaria over this issue brought both countries close to war, although the US and Soviets would probably have intervened to stop it.
Turkey had to face the Soviet Union directly on its northern border, a frontier some 620km long. Facing Bulgaria in Thrace was the Turkish 1st Army. A 15-20km deep border zone with Turkey along the 279km long border made intelligence estimates difficult to verify. However, there are obvious invasion routes across the border, and amphibious units were based at Ahtopol, close to the border, which could launch attacks on the Straits. There were extensive fortifications on both sides of the border zone, but once breached, the terrain in Turkish Thrace is primarily open plains. However, access was more manageable from the Greek side over the Evros River, which made it difficult to separate Greece from any conflict. The Turkish Corps based at Corlu would have faced the brunt of any attack from Bulgaria. While there are some defensive positions around Edirne and the wooded Yildiz Daglari, the Turkish strategy would likely follow the historical plan of a fighting withdrawal to the 20km wide Catalea position in front of Istanbul. There were additional fortifications defending the Thracian beaches near the Straits from amphibious assault.
We don’t know a great deal about Soviet plans during this period. Soviet and CIA documents from the 1962 exercise Hemus suggest two separate axes of advance towards the Turkish Straits and Greece. These were named the 1st and 2nd Balkan Fronts, with a 3rd Front in Romania as a reserve in Soviet sources, although Bulgarian sources refer to just one combined front. This included an airborne element deploying the 98th Guards Airborne Division from the Odessa Military District and two divisions earmarked for amphibious operations. Soviet Naval Infantry would land, possibly east of Istanbul, followed by a Soviet motor rifle regiment after initial assault landings. Defensive operations involved falling back on the Balkan Mountain range. Offensively, the plans assumed the capture of Thrace, then, after being reinforced from the Kyiv Military District, advanced to Ankara, and then, a sweep to the Syrian border.
In addition, there is the more complex issue of the deployment of Soviet strategic and nuclear forces in this theatre. By the 1950s, the Soviets had nuclear-capable medium bombers (Tu-4 and Tu-16) with the range to hit targets across the region. By the late 1950s, their inventory included long-range bombers like the Tu-95 Bear.
Wargaming
In the smaller scales, all the equipment used by Bulgaria and Turkey is available in the Soviet and US ranges. For Turkish infantry, US and British battledress will work as this was a transition period. The Bulgarian helmet survived during this period, although at the smaller scales, Soviet infantry is fine.
The above history points mainly to scenarios involving armoured forces in Thrace. Here is an orbat for one such game using the Cold War Commander rules. Another alternative is the planned Soviet amphibious landings to the east of Istanbul in order to cut off the Straits. US and Soviet aircraft can be added to the Turkish and Bulgarian air forces for air combat games.
In the smaller scales, all the equipment used by Bulgaria and Turkey is available in the Soviet and US ranges. For Turkish infantry, US and British battledress will work as this was a transition period. The Bulgarian helmet survived during this period, although at the smaller scales, Soviet infantry is fine.
The above history points mainly to scenarios involving armoured forces in Thrace. Here is an orbat for one such game using the Cold War Commander rules. Another alternative is the planned Soviet amphibious landings to the east of Istanbul in order to cut off the Straits. US and Soviet aircraft can be added to the Turkish and Bulgarian air forces for air combat games.
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Further Reading
J. Brown, Delicately Poised Allies: Greece and Turkey, (Brassey’s, 1991)
T. Cooper, D. Watson, & D. Vassilopoulos, Ripped Apart, (Helion, 2023)
J. Eyal, The Warsaw Pact and the Balkans, (RUSI, 1989)
V. Mastny and C. Nation, Turkey Between East and West, (Westview, 1996)
A.Mladenov and E. Andonov, Hot Skies of the Cold War, (Helion 2023)
C. Robinson, The Bulgarian Land Forces of the Cold War, (National Defence University, 2023)
G. Rottman, Warsaw Pact Ground Forces, (Osprey, 1987)
K. Smigelski, World’s Major Armies 1981, (Enola, 1981)
D. Steury, Intentions and Capabilities: Estimates on Soviet Strategic Forces, 1950-83 (CIA, 1996)
D. Watson, Chasing the Soft Underbelly, (Helion, 2023)
J. Brown, Delicately Poised Allies: Greece and Turkey, (Brassey’s, 1991)
T. Cooper, D. Watson, & D. Vassilopoulos, Ripped Apart, (Helion, 2023)
J. Eyal, The Warsaw Pact and the Balkans, (RUSI, 1989)
V. Mastny and C. Nation, Turkey Between East and West, (Westview, 1996)
A.Mladenov and E. Andonov, Hot Skies of the Cold War, (Helion 2023)
C. Robinson, The Bulgarian Land Forces of the Cold War, (National Defence University, 2023)
G. Rottman, Warsaw Pact Ground Forces, (Osprey, 1987)
K. Smigelski, World’s Major Armies 1981, (Enola, 1981)
D. Steury, Intentions and Capabilities: Estimates on Soviet Strategic Forces, 1950-83 (CIA, 1996)
D. Watson, Chasing the Soft Underbelly, (Helion, 2023)
