The Struggle for the Pontic Steppe:
Russo-Ottoman Wars 1768-1792
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This book examines the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires for control of the Pontic Steppe region during the second half of the 18th century. The Pontic Steppe stretches from the northern shores of the Black Sea to the northern area around the Caspian Sea. The Russo-Ottoman Wars of 1768–74 and 1787-92 were fought for control of this region, occasionally spilling over to the southern Caucasus, the Balkans and the Mediterranean. The conflict was driven by Catherine the Great’s colonial policies, support for Orthodox Christians in Ottoman territories, and ambitions to secure access to warm-water ports. Her broader aims included her ‘Greek Project’, which envisaged the creation of new kingdoms in the Balkans. This conflict had far-reaching consequences for both empires and the broader European geopolitical landscape, which continue to this day. This study examines how the empires organised for war; the armies, navies and the commanders that led them. And the campaigns that included the largest battles fought in 18th century Europe. You can watch the author's presentation of the book on our YouTube channel here. To order:
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This book examines the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires for control of the Pontic Steppe region during the second half of the 18th century. The Russo-Ottoman Wars of 1768–74 and 1787-92 were fought for control of this region, occasionally spilling over to the southern Caucasus, the Balkans and the Mediterranean. This study examines how the empires organised for war; the armies, navies and the commanders that led them. And the campaigns that included the largest battles fought in 18th century Europe. |
Paperback edition
162 pages, 6" x 9", 54 illustrations and 8 maps. ISBN 978-1-9193086-0-9 (Paperback) ISBN 978-1-9193086-1-6 (E-Book) Contents
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Extract: Introduction
This book examines the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires for control of the Pontic Steppe region during the second half of the 18th century. The Pontic Steppe stretches from the northern shores of the Black Sea to the northern area around the Caspian Sea. In modern national terms, this region spans from northeastern Bulgaria and southeastern Roma-nia through Moldova, Ukraine, and southern Russia to the North Caucasus. In antiquity, tribes of nomadic horsemen, including the Scythians and Sarmatians, used the steppe, probably domesticating horses for the first time, and many migrated into Europe. A recent study suggests that it was the homeland of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, now spoken by almost half the world’s population.
The Russo-Ottoman Wars of 1768–74 and 1787–92 were fought for control of this region, occasionally spilling over to the southern Caucasus, the wider Balkans, and the Mediterranean. They were two of twelve wars between 1568 and 1918 that marked the struggle for dominance between the Russian and Ottoman empires. This conflict had far-reaching consequences for both empires and the broader European geopolitical landscape.
The conflict was rooted in longstanding tensions between the Russian and Ottoman Empires, and was primarily driven by Catherine the Great’s expansionist policies, support for Orthodox Christians in Ottoman territories, and ambitions to secure access to warm-water ports. The Otto-man Empire sought to maintain its territorial integrity and counter Russian encroachments.
In 1768, the immediate cause of the war was Poland, where Russian forces clashed with pro-Ottoman factions during the internal turmoil of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Ottomans, alarmed by Russian interference in their sphere of influence, declared war on Russia on 6 October 1768. In January 1769, a large Ottoman-Tatar army led by Crimean Khan Qirim Giray invaded central Ukraine, ravaging settlements and enslaving people.
The primary front was in the Balkans and eastwards into modern-day Ukraine and Crimea when Russian forces invaded Ottoman territories, securing key victories and gaining support from local Christian populations. The Russian navy moved from the Baltic to the Mediterranean and achieved several decisive victories, including the Battle of Chesme (Chesma) in 1770, which crippled the Ottoman fleet. The Russians also pushed into the Caucasus region, further weakening Ottoman control, and encouraged revolts in Greece and the Levant.
The war ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (Kuchuk-Kainarji) in 1774, in which Russia gained territory, including access to the Black Sea coast. The Crimean Khanate was declared independent, effectively placing it under Russian influence. Russia also claimed it was granted the right to pro-tect Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire, thereby bolstering its influence in the Balkans. Russian ships were able to navigate freely in the Black Sea and pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was merely a respite. In 1787, Rus-sia annexed Crimea, and the war resumed. This time, Austria was allied with Russia, and this led to a broader conflict in the Balkans. Britain, formerly allied to Russia, and the French both encouraged the Ottomans to resist. The Ottomans attacked the Russian fortresses in southern Ukraine, but were de-feated by the Russian General Alexander Suvorov. He went on to invade Moldavia, capturing key fortresses and defeating the Ottomans at the battles of Focşani and Rymnik in modern Romania. The Austrians cooperated in this campaign, although with mixed success. Suvorov captured Izmail at the entrance of the Danube in December 1790, which led to a further victory at Machin in July 1791.
Wider European events, including Prussian hostility and the French Revolution, encouraged Russia to agree to a truce. The Treaty of Jassy (Iaşi) was signed on 9 January 1792, recognising Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Odessa and Ochakov were also ceded to Russia, and the Dniester was made the Russian frontier in Europe. The Russian Asiatic frontier along the Kuban River remained unchanged. This is where our story ends. War broke out again in 1806, with fighting over similar ground along the Danube, but this conflict became part of the wider Napoleonic Wars.
The conflict marked a turning point in the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of Russia as a major European power. It strengthened Russia's geopolitical position and set the stage for future conflicts in the region. It would take two further wars to establish Russian control of the entire north coast of the Black Sea.
We will cover all the theatres of the war in a book aimed at the generalist historical reader who wants to learn more about a conflict that is un-familiar to Western audiences and has particular relevance today. If you are looking for an academic study, we highly recommend Brian Davies’ book, The Russo-Turkish War, 1768–1774, and anything by Virginia Aksan on the Ottomans. Simon Sebag Montefiore’s authoritative The Life of Potemkin is also an excellent read. The bibliography at the end of this book provides further sources for those who wish to explore the subject in more detail. We will examine the armies involved in some detail, and in the annex, offer suggestions for recreating the battles on the tabletop, including scenarios to help wargamers get started in this fascinating and relatively overlooked period.
Most historians tend to refer to these conflicts as the Russo-Turkish Wars, as this term has become the standard. However, the Ottoman Empire during this period was neither geographically nor ethnically confined to Turkey, so we refer, admittedly pedantically, to the Ottomans. Place names have changed many times over the years, and we use recognisable names with other versions in brackets. The exception is Constantinople, which didn’t officially become Istanbul until 1923. Ottoman ranks, systems, and troop types were referred to by a variety of names, which can be confusing even to those who have spent a lifetime studying the records. Dates can also be confusing, as Russia used the Old Style Julian Calendar (OS) until 1918, and sources often use both, without clarification. The Julian Calendar (NS) was eleven days behind the Gregorian dates during this period. Some Ottoman texts use the Islamic calendar, which differs significantly. This is not an academic study, so referencing is used to guide readers who seek more detailed information than space allows in this book.
This conflict resonates with the Russian invasion of Ukraine today. It also means that the historiography can be contested and linked to issues of identity and nationalism. In Russia, the narrative of southward expansion has evolved over the centuries to the point where the current regime claims that Russia was never a colonial power. These wars did not initiate or conclude Russian colonisation; as the Imperial Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky stated, it was ‘the basic fact of Russian history.’ Russian expansionism in the Pontic Steppe was not the typical overseas colonisation practised by Western European powers, and involved displacing another empire. However, Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as ‘the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories,’ which applies to Russia in the 18th century, when it expanded into regions that were not ethnically Russian until settlers were imposed. As Khodarkovsky notes, ‘Russia was no less a colonial empire than any of the other Western European powers.’ Russia’s colonial empire was also built by subjecting indigenous societies; the only difference was that these societies were on its borders rather than overseas.
This book examines the conflict between the Russian and Ottoman empires for control of the Pontic Steppe region during the second half of the 18th century. The Pontic Steppe stretches from the northern shores of the Black Sea to the northern area around the Caspian Sea. In modern national terms, this region spans from northeastern Bulgaria and southeastern Roma-nia through Moldova, Ukraine, and southern Russia to the North Caucasus. In antiquity, tribes of nomadic horsemen, including the Scythians and Sarmatians, used the steppe, probably domesticating horses for the first time, and many migrated into Europe. A recent study suggests that it was the homeland of the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language, now spoken by almost half the world’s population.
The Russo-Ottoman Wars of 1768–74 and 1787–92 were fought for control of this region, occasionally spilling over to the southern Caucasus, the wider Balkans, and the Mediterranean. They were two of twelve wars between 1568 and 1918 that marked the struggle for dominance between the Russian and Ottoman empires. This conflict had far-reaching consequences for both empires and the broader European geopolitical landscape.
The conflict was rooted in longstanding tensions between the Russian and Ottoman Empires, and was primarily driven by Catherine the Great’s expansionist policies, support for Orthodox Christians in Ottoman territories, and ambitions to secure access to warm-water ports. The Otto-man Empire sought to maintain its territorial integrity and counter Russian encroachments.
In 1768, the immediate cause of the war was Poland, where Russian forces clashed with pro-Ottoman factions during the internal turmoil of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. The Ottomans, alarmed by Russian interference in their sphere of influence, declared war on Russia on 6 October 1768. In January 1769, a large Ottoman-Tatar army led by Crimean Khan Qirim Giray invaded central Ukraine, ravaging settlements and enslaving people.
The primary front was in the Balkans and eastwards into modern-day Ukraine and Crimea when Russian forces invaded Ottoman territories, securing key victories and gaining support from local Christian populations. The Russian navy moved from the Baltic to the Mediterranean and achieved several decisive victories, including the Battle of Chesme (Chesma) in 1770, which crippled the Ottoman fleet. The Russians also pushed into the Caucasus region, further weakening Ottoman control, and encouraged revolts in Greece and the Levant.
The war ended with the Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca (Kuchuk-Kainarji) in 1774, in which Russia gained territory, including access to the Black Sea coast. The Crimean Khanate was declared independent, effectively placing it under Russian influence. Russia also claimed it was granted the right to pro-tect Orthodox Christians within the Ottoman Empire, thereby bolstering its influence in the Balkans. Russian ships were able to navigate freely in the Black Sea and pass through the Bosporus and Dardanelles.
The Treaty of Küçük Kaynarca was merely a respite. In 1787, Rus-sia annexed Crimea, and the war resumed. This time, Austria was allied with Russia, and this led to a broader conflict in the Balkans. Britain, formerly allied to Russia, and the French both encouraged the Ottomans to resist. The Ottomans attacked the Russian fortresses in southern Ukraine, but were de-feated by the Russian General Alexander Suvorov. He went on to invade Moldavia, capturing key fortresses and defeating the Ottomans at the battles of Focşani and Rymnik in modern Romania. The Austrians cooperated in this campaign, although with mixed success. Suvorov captured Izmail at the entrance of the Danube in December 1790, which led to a further victory at Machin in July 1791.
Wider European events, including Prussian hostility and the French Revolution, encouraged Russia to agree to a truce. The Treaty of Jassy (Iaşi) was signed on 9 January 1792, recognising Russia's 1783 annexation of the Crimean Khanate. Odessa and Ochakov were also ceded to Russia, and the Dniester was made the Russian frontier in Europe. The Russian Asiatic frontier along the Kuban River remained unchanged. This is where our story ends. War broke out again in 1806, with fighting over similar ground along the Danube, but this conflict became part of the wider Napoleonic Wars.
The conflict marked a turning point in the decline of the Ottoman Empire and the rise of Russia as a major European power. It strengthened Russia's geopolitical position and set the stage for future conflicts in the region. It would take two further wars to establish Russian control of the entire north coast of the Black Sea.
We will cover all the theatres of the war in a book aimed at the generalist historical reader who wants to learn more about a conflict that is un-familiar to Western audiences and has particular relevance today. If you are looking for an academic study, we highly recommend Brian Davies’ book, The Russo-Turkish War, 1768–1774, and anything by Virginia Aksan on the Ottomans. Simon Sebag Montefiore’s authoritative The Life of Potemkin is also an excellent read. The bibliography at the end of this book provides further sources for those who wish to explore the subject in more detail. We will examine the armies involved in some detail, and in the annex, offer suggestions for recreating the battles on the tabletop, including scenarios to help wargamers get started in this fascinating and relatively overlooked period.
Most historians tend to refer to these conflicts as the Russo-Turkish Wars, as this term has become the standard. However, the Ottoman Empire during this period was neither geographically nor ethnically confined to Turkey, so we refer, admittedly pedantically, to the Ottomans. Place names have changed many times over the years, and we use recognisable names with other versions in brackets. The exception is Constantinople, which didn’t officially become Istanbul until 1923. Ottoman ranks, systems, and troop types were referred to by a variety of names, which can be confusing even to those who have spent a lifetime studying the records. Dates can also be confusing, as Russia used the Old Style Julian Calendar (OS) until 1918, and sources often use both, without clarification. The Julian Calendar (NS) was eleven days behind the Gregorian dates during this period. Some Ottoman texts use the Islamic calendar, which differs significantly. This is not an academic study, so referencing is used to guide readers who seek more detailed information than space allows in this book.
This conflict resonates with the Russian invasion of Ukraine today. It also means that the historiography can be contested and linked to issues of identity and nationalism. In Russia, the narrative of southward expansion has evolved over the centuries to the point where the current regime claims that Russia was never a colonial power. These wars did not initiate or conclude Russian colonisation; as the Imperial Russian historian Vasily Klyuchevsky stated, it was ‘the basic fact of Russian history.’ Russian expansionism in the Pontic Steppe was not the typical overseas colonisation practised by Western European powers, and involved displacing another empire. However, Webster's Encyclopedic Dictionary defines colonialism as ‘the system or policy of a nation seeking to extend or retain its authority over other people or territories,’ which applies to Russia in the 18th century, when it expanded into regions that were not ethnically Russian until settlers were imposed. As Khodarkovsky notes, ‘Russia was no less a colonial empire than any of the other Western European powers.’ Russia’s colonial empire was also built by subjecting indigenous societies; the only difference was that these societies were on its borders rather than overseas.
Wargaming the Struggle for the Pontic Steppe
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There is an annex in the book that introduces the reader to wargaming the conflicts covered in the book. This includes the available models and rules as well as three scenarios.
The author took a series of participation games with members of Glasgow and District Wargaming Society to wargame shows across Scotland in 2025. These included: The Battle of Khotin 1769 (Carronade, Falkirk) The Battle of Rymnik 1789 (Claymore, Edinburgh) The Battle of Kinburn 1787 will be at Targe, Kirriemuir on 1 November 2025 |
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