The Young Alexander:
Learning the Art of War in the Balkans
Introduction
When we think of Alexander the Great, we inevitably think of the hero King who destroyed the Persian Empire in five short years. However, Alexander learned the art of war, not against the Persians or even other Greeks, but rather in campaigns across the Balkans. Alexander learned the art of war in these less well-known campaigns against the Paeonians, Illyrians and Thracians. This article will focus on Alexander's early campaigns in 335 BCE and how he developed the Macedonian army against various opponents. We will then discuss how to wargame these campaigns using the big battle rules, Strength and Honour. As is often the case with ancient campaigns, we have limited sources, in this case primarily Arrian, whose Anabasis of Alexander was written several centuries later, although relying on earlier sources.
Macedon
Ancient Macedon occupied the northern part of Greece, bordered by Epirus to the west, Thessaly to the south, and Thrace to the east. The northern borders extended into the region of Paeonia and Illyria. Unlike the Greek city-states to the south, Macedon was a geographically more extensive state, with the population living on the land in villages. The climate was more suitable for cereal crops, horse, and sheep breeding than in southern regions of Greece. It was also heavily forested, exporting timber for shipbuilding, and had large silver and gold deposits. Its early period was marked by tribal warfare before it gradually merged into a more centralised kingdom under the Argead dynasty, who probably emigrated from Argos in the Peloponnese during the 8th century BCE.
Macedon expanded into modern Macedonia before the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE). They were sometimes allied with other Greek states and briefly came under the Persian sphere of influence. Internal disputes and pressure from Athens in the south and the Thracian, Illyrian and Paeonian tribes in the north constrained further expansion.
Philip II was twenty-four when he acceded to the throne in 359 BCE. Through diplomacy and bribery, he persuaded the northern tribes and Athens to halt their support for other pretenders to the throne. After rebuilding the Macedonian army, he secured the borders and expanded the state through marriage and military action. Unlike other Greeks, Philip II practised polygamy and married seven wives, securing alliances with neighbouring states and the Macedonian noble families. In 357 BCE, he married Olympias to secure an alliance with Epirus and the Molossians. This marriage would result in the birth of Alexander the following year.
At the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE, he defeated a combined force of Athens and Thebes, establishing Macedonian hegemony over Greece. After Chaeronea, Philip II founded the League of Corinth in 337 BCE, a federation of Greek states under Macedonian leadership. This league was formed to maintain peace among the Greek city-states and to prepare for an invasion of Persia. An objective that fell to Alexander after his father’s assassination in 336 BC, which he and his mother may have had a hand in.
When we think of Alexander the Great, we inevitably think of the hero King who destroyed the Persian Empire in five short years. However, Alexander learned the art of war, not against the Persians or even other Greeks, but rather in campaigns across the Balkans. Alexander learned the art of war in these less well-known campaigns against the Paeonians, Illyrians and Thracians. This article will focus on Alexander's early campaigns in 335 BCE and how he developed the Macedonian army against various opponents. We will then discuss how to wargame these campaigns using the big battle rules, Strength and Honour. As is often the case with ancient campaigns, we have limited sources, in this case primarily Arrian, whose Anabasis of Alexander was written several centuries later, although relying on earlier sources.
Macedon
Ancient Macedon occupied the northern part of Greece, bordered by Epirus to the west, Thessaly to the south, and Thrace to the east. The northern borders extended into the region of Paeonia and Illyria. Unlike the Greek city-states to the south, Macedon was a geographically more extensive state, with the population living on the land in villages. The climate was more suitable for cereal crops, horse, and sheep breeding than in southern regions of Greece. It was also heavily forested, exporting timber for shipbuilding, and had large silver and gold deposits. Its early period was marked by tribal warfare before it gradually merged into a more centralised kingdom under the Argead dynasty, who probably emigrated from Argos in the Peloponnese during the 8th century BCE.
Macedon expanded into modern Macedonia before the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE). They were sometimes allied with other Greek states and briefly came under the Persian sphere of influence. Internal disputes and pressure from Athens in the south and the Thracian, Illyrian and Paeonian tribes in the north constrained further expansion.
Philip II was twenty-four when he acceded to the throne in 359 BCE. Through diplomacy and bribery, he persuaded the northern tribes and Athens to halt their support for other pretenders to the throne. After rebuilding the Macedonian army, he secured the borders and expanded the state through marriage and military action. Unlike other Greeks, Philip II practised polygamy and married seven wives, securing alliances with neighbouring states and the Macedonian noble families. In 357 BCE, he married Olympias to secure an alliance with Epirus and the Molossians. This marriage would result in the birth of Alexander the following year.
At the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE, he defeated a combined force of Athens and Thebes, establishing Macedonian hegemony over Greece. After Chaeronea, Philip II founded the League of Corinth in 337 BCE, a federation of Greek states under Macedonian leadership. This league was formed to maintain peace among the Greek city-states and to prepare for an invasion of Persia. An objective that fell to Alexander after his father’s assassination in 336 BC, which he and his mother may have had a hand in.
The campaigns of the young Alexander
Philip conducted several military campaigns in the northern and western Balkans to secure the Macedonian borders and expand his influence. Early in his reign, Philip faced challenges from the Illyrian and Paeonian tribes in Macedon's western and northern regions. He conducted successful campaigns to subdue these threats and secure Macedon's western borders. Philip extended his influence into Thrace, campaigning against various Thracian tribes. By subduing or forming alliances with these tribes, he secured Macedon's northern borders and expanded its control over the northeastern territories. During these campaigns, Alexander was appointed Regent, ensuring the lines of communication and supply were maintained with the King’s army. The army also developed the skills of besieging coastal strongholds and responding to guerrilla warfare, which would be vital in later campaigns.
Alexander’s first military campaign was against the Maidoi, who occupied the upper reaches of the Struma valley in modern Bulgaria. In this campaign, he killed his first man and renamed the main city Alexandropolis - the first of many to bear his name. He later joined his father campaigning on the Bosporus, learning the skills of siegecraft and engineering. There was a different learning curve when he accompanied his father in a successful campaign against the Scythians, with their famed horse archers, along the Danube in modern Dobruja. The journey home was a tougher prospect, and the army was mauled by a Thracian tribe the Triballi, with Philip receiving a wound that left him disabled. At the Battle of Chaeronea, Alexander commanded the Companion cavalry as part of the Macedonian left wing commanded by Parmenion. He was only 18 but would have been surrounded by experienced commanders. As a gap appeared in the Greek line, Alexander's cavalry charged, rupturing the enemy line and contributing to the Macedonian victory.
When Alexander came to the throne in 336 BCE, he faced a revolt led by the city of Thebes. Alexander swiftly marched his army to Thebes, quelled the rebellion, and razed the city to set an example. He also campaigned in the Balkans in 335 BCE, and it is these campaigns we will look at in more detail to show how Alexander learned the art of war when facing different tactical challenges.
Alexander took his army into Thrace to stamp his authority on the semi-autonomous tribal areas. He advanced into the Haemus (Balkan) mountains but was blocked by a tribe of Thracians and their Greek merchant allies. They deployed rock-loaded wagons in an offensive mode, which Alexander countered by drilling his men to allow them to pass or hide under their shields as they rolled over. A tactic the Romans would later adopt against the Thracians as well as against scythed chariots and elephants. Alexander's infantry abandoned the pike and attacked with traditional hoplite equipment, shorter spears and larger shields. Supported by light infantry and archers, they captured the Thracian stockade (see scenario below).
His army then advanced into the Triballi lands on the Danube. The Triballi held a solid defensive position but were teased out by missile fire, and when they charged the deep Macedonian line, Alexander's cavalry worked around the flanks, overwhelming them. He attacked their stronghold on an island in the Danube using his flotilla of ships in an amphibious assault. However, the steepness of the shore and fast tides forced him to withdraw. Meanwhile, a Getae tribe amassed a strong force of around 14,000 men on the river's north bank. Alexander used his small fleet to cross the river, taking the Getae by surprise and routing them. After he burnt the Getae settlements, the Triballi sued for peace. It was here that Alexander came into contact with the Celtic tribes. All these tribes, including the Agrainians, provided troops for his later armies. In this one campaign, we can see a variety of tactics deployed by Alexander, using the flexibility of the Macedonian military effectively.
The next campaign was against the Illyrians, whom Alexander had probably met during his earlier self-imposed exile from his father's court. The Illyrian tribes assembled at Pelium; the site is contested but probably near the Cangonj Pass in modern southeast Albania. Alexander defeated an assault, and the Illyrians withdrew to the town. A siege ensued when another Illyrian tribe, the Taulantians, arrived to relieve it. Alexander was forced to withdraw, although he quickly counter-attacked with a night assault over a river crossing, which routed the enemy (see scenario below). They abandoned Pelium and retreated north, never to challenge Alexander for the rest of his reign. A night attack takes great discipline and skill; as Arrian says, 'His skill in marshalling, arming and equipping a force, in raising the morale of his troops, filling them with confidence and banishing their fear in dangers by his own fearlessness was altogether most admirable.' It was in these Balkan campaigns that Alexander emerged as an exceptional commander, and he was only just in his twenties.
All these campaigns took place in one campaign season, which required the army to move quickly, typically 15 miles a day. Alexander benefited from his father’s efficient logistical system, which avoided using oxcarts and wagons, reflecting the needs of the Macedonian economy and the terrain. They relied on mules and servants to carry equipment (one per ten infantry), and soldiers would carry their own flour and other food. A typical soldier's pack might weigh 80 pounds, similar to a modern infantryman.
Philip conducted several military campaigns in the northern and western Balkans to secure the Macedonian borders and expand his influence. Early in his reign, Philip faced challenges from the Illyrian and Paeonian tribes in Macedon's western and northern regions. He conducted successful campaigns to subdue these threats and secure Macedon's western borders. Philip extended his influence into Thrace, campaigning against various Thracian tribes. By subduing or forming alliances with these tribes, he secured Macedon's northern borders and expanded its control over the northeastern territories. During these campaigns, Alexander was appointed Regent, ensuring the lines of communication and supply were maintained with the King’s army. The army also developed the skills of besieging coastal strongholds and responding to guerrilla warfare, which would be vital in later campaigns.
Alexander’s first military campaign was against the Maidoi, who occupied the upper reaches of the Struma valley in modern Bulgaria. In this campaign, he killed his first man and renamed the main city Alexandropolis - the first of many to bear his name. He later joined his father campaigning on the Bosporus, learning the skills of siegecraft and engineering. There was a different learning curve when he accompanied his father in a successful campaign against the Scythians, with their famed horse archers, along the Danube in modern Dobruja. The journey home was a tougher prospect, and the army was mauled by a Thracian tribe the Triballi, with Philip receiving a wound that left him disabled. At the Battle of Chaeronea, Alexander commanded the Companion cavalry as part of the Macedonian left wing commanded by Parmenion. He was only 18 but would have been surrounded by experienced commanders. As a gap appeared in the Greek line, Alexander's cavalry charged, rupturing the enemy line and contributing to the Macedonian victory.
When Alexander came to the throne in 336 BCE, he faced a revolt led by the city of Thebes. Alexander swiftly marched his army to Thebes, quelled the rebellion, and razed the city to set an example. He also campaigned in the Balkans in 335 BCE, and it is these campaigns we will look at in more detail to show how Alexander learned the art of war when facing different tactical challenges.
Alexander took his army into Thrace to stamp his authority on the semi-autonomous tribal areas. He advanced into the Haemus (Balkan) mountains but was blocked by a tribe of Thracians and their Greek merchant allies. They deployed rock-loaded wagons in an offensive mode, which Alexander countered by drilling his men to allow them to pass or hide under their shields as they rolled over. A tactic the Romans would later adopt against the Thracians as well as against scythed chariots and elephants. Alexander's infantry abandoned the pike and attacked with traditional hoplite equipment, shorter spears and larger shields. Supported by light infantry and archers, they captured the Thracian stockade (see scenario below).
His army then advanced into the Triballi lands on the Danube. The Triballi held a solid defensive position but were teased out by missile fire, and when they charged the deep Macedonian line, Alexander's cavalry worked around the flanks, overwhelming them. He attacked their stronghold on an island in the Danube using his flotilla of ships in an amphibious assault. However, the steepness of the shore and fast tides forced him to withdraw. Meanwhile, a Getae tribe amassed a strong force of around 14,000 men on the river's north bank. Alexander used his small fleet to cross the river, taking the Getae by surprise and routing them. After he burnt the Getae settlements, the Triballi sued for peace. It was here that Alexander came into contact with the Celtic tribes. All these tribes, including the Agrainians, provided troops for his later armies. In this one campaign, we can see a variety of tactics deployed by Alexander, using the flexibility of the Macedonian military effectively.
The next campaign was against the Illyrians, whom Alexander had probably met during his earlier self-imposed exile from his father's court. The Illyrian tribes assembled at Pelium; the site is contested but probably near the Cangonj Pass in modern southeast Albania. Alexander defeated an assault, and the Illyrians withdrew to the town. A siege ensued when another Illyrian tribe, the Taulantians, arrived to relieve it. Alexander was forced to withdraw, although he quickly counter-attacked with a night assault over a river crossing, which routed the enemy (see scenario below). They abandoned Pelium and retreated north, never to challenge Alexander for the rest of his reign. A night attack takes great discipline and skill; as Arrian says, 'His skill in marshalling, arming and equipping a force, in raising the morale of his troops, filling them with confidence and banishing their fear in dangers by his own fearlessness was altogether most admirable.' It was in these Balkan campaigns that Alexander emerged as an exceptional commander, and he was only just in his twenties.
All these campaigns took place in one campaign season, which required the army to move quickly, typically 15 miles a day. Alexander benefited from his father’s efficient logistical system, which avoided using oxcarts and wagons, reflecting the needs of the Macedonian economy and the terrain. They relied on mules and servants to carry equipment (one per ten infantry), and soldiers would carry their own flour and other food. A typical soldier's pack might weigh 80 pounds, similar to a modern infantryman.
Armies for Strength and Honour
Alexander’s military success was due to his skill as a tactician and his undoubted leadership skills. However, the military machine he utilised was created by his father, built around the Sarissa (pike) armed infantry phalanx with a strike force of heavy cavalry. Important though this innovation was, particularly over the traditional Greek hoplites, the Macedonian army was a flexible all-arms force. In the Balkan campaigns, Phillip adapted his tactics and used cavalry, archers, slingers and light infantry in combinations that reflected their opponents and the terrain they fought over. As we can see from the above, Alexander did the same. There are many excellent books on the Macedonian army (see further reading), although they focus on the later army with its many exotic troop types. We will focus on how to portray Alexander’s early Macedonian army and their enemies on the tabletop using the Strength and Honour rules. I should emphasise that we don't have detailed orders of battle, just some descriptions of the troop types. So, if you disagree, feel free to adapt these as you see fit. Mark has now brought out a supplement for this earlier period (Conquest) with new rules and army lists.
Macedonian Army in the Balkans 335 BCE
The pike phalanx was still an essential element of Alexander's army in the Balkans, but in rough terrain, they could abandon the pike for the traditional hoplite shield and spear.
Core Force
2 Command Points, 2 Generalship Points, Companions (one unit only); Cavalry; Pike Phalanx x 2 (who can replace pike with spear and large shield as Hoplites); skirmishers.
Common Units
Veteran and Pike Phalanx (who can switch to Hoplites); Archers; Peltasts; Skirmishers; Cavalry; Light Cavalry.
Alexander’s military success was due to his skill as a tactician and his undoubted leadership skills. However, the military machine he utilised was created by his father, built around the Sarissa (pike) armed infantry phalanx with a strike force of heavy cavalry. Important though this innovation was, particularly over the traditional Greek hoplites, the Macedonian army was a flexible all-arms force. In the Balkan campaigns, Phillip adapted his tactics and used cavalry, archers, slingers and light infantry in combinations that reflected their opponents and the terrain they fought over. As we can see from the above, Alexander did the same. There are many excellent books on the Macedonian army (see further reading), although they focus on the later army with its many exotic troop types. We will focus on how to portray Alexander’s early Macedonian army and their enemies on the tabletop using the Strength and Honour rules. I should emphasise that we don't have detailed orders of battle, just some descriptions of the troop types. So, if you disagree, feel free to adapt these as you see fit. Mark has now brought out a supplement for this earlier period (Conquest) with new rules and army lists.
Macedonian Army in the Balkans 335 BCE
The pike phalanx was still an essential element of Alexander's army in the Balkans, but in rough terrain, they could abandon the pike for the traditional hoplite shield and spear.
Core Force
2 Command Points, 2 Generalship Points, Companions (one unit only); Cavalry; Pike Phalanx x 2 (who can replace pike with spear and large shield as Hoplites); skirmishers.
Common Units
Veteran and Pike Phalanx (who can switch to Hoplites); Archers; Peltasts; Skirmishers; Cavalry; Light Cavalry.
Thracian Army in the Balkans 335 BCE
This list covers all the Thracian tribes that fought against Alexander in the Balkans, including the Triballi and Getae. During this period, the infantry core was mostly spearmen who also carried javelins, although we are unsure of the proportions or unit organisation. Thracian armies included slingers and archers as skirmishers. The Odrysai provided the bulk of Thracian cavalry based in the plains but did not play a significant role in these mountain campaigns.
Core Force
2 Command Points, 1 Generalship Points; Open Order Warriors x 3; skirmishers.
Common Units
Open Order Warriors; Skirmishers.
Rare Units
Veteran Warriors; Cavalry; Light Cavalry. The Getae can have one unit of horse archers.
This list covers all the Thracian tribes that fought against Alexander in the Balkans, including the Triballi and Getae. During this period, the infantry core was mostly spearmen who also carried javelins, although we are unsure of the proportions or unit organisation. Thracian armies included slingers and archers as skirmishers. The Odrysai provided the bulk of Thracian cavalry based in the plains but did not play a significant role in these mountain campaigns.
Core Force
2 Command Points, 1 Generalship Points; Open Order Warriors x 3; skirmishers.
Common Units
Open Order Warriors; Skirmishers.
Rare Units
Veteran Warriors; Cavalry; Light Cavalry. The Getae can have one unit of horse archers.
Illyrian Army in the Balkans 335 BCE
The Illyrians were a grouping of around 80 tribes who lived along the western Balkans from just south of the Danube down to modern Albania. They rarely came together, and inter-tribal warfare was commonplace. In this campaign, we deal with the southern tribes bordering Macedon and Epirus, specifically the Taulantii and Dardanians. The Strength and Honour army list 11 covers the Illyrians starting in this period and will be fine for this campaign.
The Illyrians were a grouping of around 80 tribes who lived along the western Balkans from just south of the Danube down to modern Albania. They rarely came together, and inter-tribal warfare was commonplace. In this campaign, we deal with the southern tribes bordering Macedon and Epirus, specifically the Taulantii and Dardanians. The Strength and Honour army list 11 covers the Illyrians starting in this period and will be fine for this campaign.
Scenarios
Mount Haemus
This scenario covers Alexander’s crossing of the Haemus (Balkan) Mountains as he sought to attack the Triballians on the Danube, supported by the Macedonian fleet bringing supplies. There are several passes through the mountains, and we don't know for sure which route he took. Most authors believe it was the Shipka Pass, famous as a much later battle site in the Russo-Turkish War 1877. However, others argue for the Trojan Pass, which was more prevalent in antiquity. Arrian tells us, “There he was met in the narrows of the approach to the mountain by a large number of armed locals and the independent Thracians: they had occupied the high point of the Haemus pass along the army’s route and were equipped to block its advance.” They probably came from the Treres and Tetrachoritae tribes, supported by Greek merchants who provided wagons to block the route.
There is no consensus on the exact numbers of troops involved, although the estimates for the Macedonians are around 20-25,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, although not all would be engaged. The numbers for the Thracians are unknown but probably significantly smaller than the Macedonian army and certainly more lightly armed as mountain tribes.
Given the terrain, Alexander had probably already ordered his phalanx to switch to hoplite equipment, although views differ on this. He anticipated the Thracian tactic of sending the wagons full of rocks down on his troops. His infantry were ordered to leave a gap for the wagons or lie down and allow the wagons to run over their shields. This is challenging to replicate on the tabletop, although they could be treated like scythed chariots. Alexander used the same tactics against the Persian chariots at Gaugamela some years later. However, as the tactic worked, we started the battle after this stage. Alexander positioned archers on the right in front of his infantry. The lightly armed Thracians suffered heavy casualties from archery as his left flank infantry joined the attack. The Thracians fled, having suffered around 1500 casualties.
Macedonian Army: 2 x Veteran Phalanx, 1 x Phalanx (all as phalanx as hoplites), 1 x Peltasts, 1 x Archers, 2 x Skirmishers.
Thracian Army: 4 x Open order warriors, 4 x skirmishers
The Macedonians move first, and their objective is to clear the pass. Terrain in dark brown is classified as Rough (Rocky) Terrain. The pass into the mountains in the Thracian deployment zone counts as hills for the defender.
Mount Haemus
This scenario covers Alexander’s crossing of the Haemus (Balkan) Mountains as he sought to attack the Triballians on the Danube, supported by the Macedonian fleet bringing supplies. There are several passes through the mountains, and we don't know for sure which route he took. Most authors believe it was the Shipka Pass, famous as a much later battle site in the Russo-Turkish War 1877. However, others argue for the Trojan Pass, which was more prevalent in antiquity. Arrian tells us, “There he was met in the narrows of the approach to the mountain by a large number of armed locals and the independent Thracians: they had occupied the high point of the Haemus pass along the army’s route and were equipped to block its advance.” They probably came from the Treres and Tetrachoritae tribes, supported by Greek merchants who provided wagons to block the route.
There is no consensus on the exact numbers of troops involved, although the estimates for the Macedonians are around 20-25,000 infantry and 5,000 cavalry, although not all would be engaged. The numbers for the Thracians are unknown but probably significantly smaller than the Macedonian army and certainly more lightly armed as mountain tribes.
Given the terrain, Alexander had probably already ordered his phalanx to switch to hoplite equipment, although views differ on this. He anticipated the Thracian tactic of sending the wagons full of rocks down on his troops. His infantry were ordered to leave a gap for the wagons or lie down and allow the wagons to run over their shields. This is challenging to replicate on the tabletop, although they could be treated like scythed chariots. Alexander used the same tactics against the Persian chariots at Gaugamela some years later. However, as the tactic worked, we started the battle after this stage. Alexander positioned archers on the right in front of his infantry. The lightly armed Thracians suffered heavy casualties from archery as his left flank infantry joined the attack. The Thracians fled, having suffered around 1500 casualties.
Macedonian Army: 2 x Veteran Phalanx, 1 x Phalanx (all as phalanx as hoplites), 1 x Peltasts, 1 x Archers, 2 x Skirmishers.
Thracian Army: 4 x Open order warriors, 4 x skirmishers
The Macedonians move first, and their objective is to clear the pass. Terrain in dark brown is classified as Rough (Rocky) Terrain. The pass into the mountains in the Thracian deployment zone counts as hills for the defender.
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Pelium
Once Alexander had completed the campaign on the Danube, his army was returning south when he heard that Cleitus of the Dardanians had revolted with his ally Glaukias, the King of Taulantians. These Illyrian tribes had a long history of conflict with Macedon, and based on their borders, they probably intended to attack Macedon while Alexander was away.
Alexander marched his forces to the fortified Dardanian town of Pelium. The location is again unclear from the sources, but there is a greater consensus on the battlefield terrain. The Dardanians garrisoned the town and occupied the wooded mountains above the plain, ready to attack when Alexander invested the town. The Macedonians camped on the river some distance from the town to provide water and protect their lines of communication with Macedon. When they advanced onto the plain, the Dardanians skirmished with the Macedonians rather than initiate a full-blown attack. Alexander withdrew his army to avoid being encircled but returned the next day, forcing the Dardanians back into the town and the mountains. He built a siege wall around the town as he had limited siege equipment. This largely isolated the Dardanians from their allies, the Taulantians, when they arrived on the high ground the next day. There was a skirmish action as the Macedonians foraged for food.
Alexander was in a tight spot. As Arrian puts it, ‘It still seemed that the troops with Cleitus and Glaucias had Alexander caught in a difficult position. They occupied the commanding heights with large numbers of cavalry, javelin men, slingers, and a good force of hoplites; the men in the city were ready to attack Alexander's army as it withdrew.' He took the offensive, performing complex drills with the phalanx to awe the enemy who withdrew to the foothills. He then appears to launch a feint attack, encouraging other Illyrians to attack from the hills. The phalanx then turned to attack this new threat, routing them. The precise stages of the various attacks are difficult to follow from Arrian, and historians have interpreted them differently. It appears that Alexander withdrew, using covering fire from the newly arrived siege catapults, a rare use of artillery in a field battle in this period. The Illyrians thought he had retreated and failed to fortify their positions. After three days, Alexander launched a night attack, which routed the Illyrian forces. Cleitus sought refuge in Pelium before burning the town and then fleeing into exile with the Taulantians.
This is a complex battle fought over several days. So, to simplify matters, we picked the Macedonian attack on the foothills. The numbers engaged are somewhat speculative, but the Macedonians had a balanced force facing a typical Illyrian host on this day. Arrian does mention a force of hoplites with the Illyrians but gives no details. It is unclear if this refers to heavier weapons and fighting techniques or a band of mercenary Greeks. I have gone for a close-order warband from the list in the rulebook. The sources say the Illyrians did not bring missile troops, although they must have had skirmishers.
Macedonian army: 2 x Veteran Phalanx, 1 x Peltasts, 1 x Archers, 2 x Skirmishers. 1 x Companions, 1 x Cavalry.
Illyrians: 1 x Warband ('Hoplites'), 1 x Frenzied Warband, 1 Open Order Veteran Warriors, 3 x Open Order Warriors, 2 x Skirmishers, 1 x Cavalry.
Treat the hills marked on the map as hills but not Rough Terrain. Woods as marked.
Once Alexander had completed the campaign on the Danube, his army was returning south when he heard that Cleitus of the Dardanians had revolted with his ally Glaukias, the King of Taulantians. These Illyrian tribes had a long history of conflict with Macedon, and based on their borders, they probably intended to attack Macedon while Alexander was away.
Alexander marched his forces to the fortified Dardanian town of Pelium. The location is again unclear from the sources, but there is a greater consensus on the battlefield terrain. The Dardanians garrisoned the town and occupied the wooded mountains above the plain, ready to attack when Alexander invested the town. The Macedonians camped on the river some distance from the town to provide water and protect their lines of communication with Macedon. When they advanced onto the plain, the Dardanians skirmished with the Macedonians rather than initiate a full-blown attack. Alexander withdrew his army to avoid being encircled but returned the next day, forcing the Dardanians back into the town and the mountains. He built a siege wall around the town as he had limited siege equipment. This largely isolated the Dardanians from their allies, the Taulantians, when they arrived on the high ground the next day. There was a skirmish action as the Macedonians foraged for food.
Alexander was in a tight spot. As Arrian puts it, ‘It still seemed that the troops with Cleitus and Glaucias had Alexander caught in a difficult position. They occupied the commanding heights with large numbers of cavalry, javelin men, slingers, and a good force of hoplites; the men in the city were ready to attack Alexander's army as it withdrew.' He took the offensive, performing complex drills with the phalanx to awe the enemy who withdrew to the foothills. He then appears to launch a feint attack, encouraging other Illyrians to attack from the hills. The phalanx then turned to attack this new threat, routing them. The precise stages of the various attacks are difficult to follow from Arrian, and historians have interpreted them differently. It appears that Alexander withdrew, using covering fire from the newly arrived siege catapults, a rare use of artillery in a field battle in this period. The Illyrians thought he had retreated and failed to fortify their positions. After three days, Alexander launched a night attack, which routed the Illyrian forces. Cleitus sought refuge in Pelium before burning the town and then fleeing into exile with the Taulantians.
This is a complex battle fought over several days. So, to simplify matters, we picked the Macedonian attack on the foothills. The numbers engaged are somewhat speculative, but the Macedonians had a balanced force facing a typical Illyrian host on this day. Arrian does mention a force of hoplites with the Illyrians but gives no details. It is unclear if this refers to heavier weapons and fighting techniques or a band of mercenary Greeks. I have gone for a close-order warband from the list in the rulebook. The sources say the Illyrians did not bring missile troops, although they must have had skirmishers.
Macedonian army: 2 x Veteran Phalanx, 1 x Peltasts, 1 x Archers, 2 x Skirmishers. 1 x Companions, 1 x Cavalry.
Illyrians: 1 x Warband ('Hoplites'), 1 x Frenzied Warband, 1 Open Order Veteran Warriors, 3 x Open Order Warriors, 2 x Skirmishers, 1 x Cavalry.
Treat the hills marked on the map as hills but not Rough Terrain. Woods as marked.
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Conclusion
Alexander’s combination of troops and tactics in the Balkan campaign secured his northern frontier and taught him critical tactical lessons. It also brought him allies, providing the necessary forces for his later Persian campaign. He recognised the Thracian trap in the Balkan passes and outmanoeuvred the Triballi and their Getae allies across the Danube. His battle drill at the Pelion fortress was original and helped defeat the Illyrian tribes, the Taulantians and the Dardanians. The combination of the Agrianians, archers, cavalry and heavy infantry in Alexander's army during the Balkan campaign was an outstanding feat of generalship. However, Alexander also learned from his father the importance of diplomacy, trade and road building, all of which would help build his later Macedonian Empire.
Further Reading
The most readable history of this period is Alex Rowson’s The Young Alexander (William Collins, 2022). I also consulted the following for those who want a deeper dive into this period:
Abdale, J, The Great Illyrian Revolt (Pen & Sword, 2019)
Arrian (Translated by M.Hammond), Alexander the Great (Oxford World’s Classics, 2013)
Errington, M, A History of Macedon (University of California, 1990)
Esposito, G, The Macedonian Army of Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359–323 BC (Pen & Sword, 2022)
Esposito, G, Armies of the Thracians and Dacians 500 BC-AD 150 (Pen & Sword, 2021)
Hammond, N, Phillip of Macedon (Duckworth, 1994)
Hammond, N, Alexander’s Campaign in Illyria (The Journal of Hellenic Studies Vol. 94, 1974)
Hammond, N, A History of Macedon (Clarendon Press, 1972)
Iordanidis, A, The Campaign of Alexander the Great in Thrace and Illyria 335 BC (International Hellenic University, 2018)
Sekunda, N, The Army of Alexander the Great (Osprey, 1984)
Webber, C, The Thracians 700 BC-AD 46 (Osprey, 2001)
Dave Watson
2024
Alexander’s combination of troops and tactics in the Balkan campaign secured his northern frontier and taught him critical tactical lessons. It also brought him allies, providing the necessary forces for his later Persian campaign. He recognised the Thracian trap in the Balkan passes and outmanoeuvred the Triballi and their Getae allies across the Danube. His battle drill at the Pelion fortress was original and helped defeat the Illyrian tribes, the Taulantians and the Dardanians. The combination of the Agrianians, archers, cavalry and heavy infantry in Alexander's army during the Balkan campaign was an outstanding feat of generalship. However, Alexander also learned from his father the importance of diplomacy, trade and road building, all of which would help build his later Macedonian Empire.
Further Reading
The most readable history of this period is Alex Rowson’s The Young Alexander (William Collins, 2022). I also consulted the following for those who want a deeper dive into this period:
Abdale, J, The Great Illyrian Revolt (Pen & Sword, 2019)
Arrian (Translated by M.Hammond), Alexander the Great (Oxford World’s Classics, 2013)
Errington, M, A History of Macedon (University of California, 1990)
Esposito, G, The Macedonian Army of Philip II and Alexander the Great, 359–323 BC (Pen & Sword, 2022)
Esposito, G, Armies of the Thracians and Dacians 500 BC-AD 150 (Pen & Sword, 2021)
Hammond, N, Phillip of Macedon (Duckworth, 1994)
Hammond, N, Alexander’s Campaign in Illyria (The Journal of Hellenic Studies Vol. 94, 1974)
Hammond, N, A History of Macedon (Clarendon Press, 1972)
Iordanidis, A, The Campaign of Alexander the Great in Thrace and Illyria 335 BC (International Hellenic University, 2018)
Sekunda, N, The Army of Alexander the Great (Osprey, 1984)
Webber, C, The Thracians 700 BC-AD 46 (Osprey, 2001)
Dave Watson
2024
