Ottoman Navy During the Napoleonic Wars
By the start of the Napoleonic period, the Ottoman navy was in a pitiful state. The great traditions that made it feared during the Renaissance period; the natural harbours, the sailors and natural resources had been neglected. This culminated in the Battle of Cesme in 1770 when the fleet was all but destroyed by the Russians.
The reforming Sultan Selim III inherited a rebuilding programme, which used modern British and French designs to construct a fleet of 22 ships of the line, 15 frigates and many smaller ships. This was both a blue sea navy and gunboats to operate on the great rivers of the empire. He appointed Kucuk Huseyin as Kapitan Pasha and attracted officers and technicians from abroad as well as reintroducing conscription and tackling corruption. By 1800, the fleet had 30 ships of the line and 50 frigates and brigs.
The war against Russia resulted in funds being diverted to the army, and the navy once again went into decline. Sultan Mahmud came to the throne in 1808 and strengthened the navy so it could once again challenge the Russians in the Black Sea.
Ottoman ships were mostly of French design, although they had more headroom below deck to allow for the turbans of officers! More traditional eastern designs were used for coastal and river warfare, including oar-powered galleys. In 1799 the flagship, the Sultan Selim, mounted 120 forty-two pounders and at least ten more of smaller calibre, with a crew of 1400 men. The reforms included a naval academy and a system of ranks based more on ability than bribery.
Pictures of Ottoman ships show a variety of colour schemes. A description by a British naval officer visiting in 1799, refers to yellow as the predominant colour on both sides. Others refer to black or red trimming. It is reasonable to conclude, that like other fleets of the time, there was no standard colour scheme.
Sailors came mostly from the Ottoman Empire’s Greek subjects, who were as good as any in the world. However, the weakness of the officer corps made fleet manoeuvre difficult and so the Ottomans choose to defend inlets, swinging their ships on the anchor chains. Fleets were often supplemented by large numbers of oared gunboats. Manpower was also an emphasis in river warfare. From contemporary pictures it looks like opposing fleets crashed through each other to fire broadsides and then grapple. Scimitar armed Turks were much feared by their contemporaries in boarding actions.
Marines were provided by the 31st Orta of Janissaries, supplemented by two units of naval riflemen known as Galangis. Other janissary units also had naval insignia, including the 88th, 8th Boluk and 56th Cemaat ortas. It is possible that these primarily served on river flotillas.
The ship’s captain was the Rais, assisted by junior officers known as Mulazim. There was no specific naval uniform, with levend sailors being dressed like their land equivalents. The 31st Jannissary Orta wore blue coats. Officers could be distinguished by gold embroidery and elaborate weaponry.
The Ottomans could also call upon irregular naval forces, particularly the Barbary Corsairs. The British allied with them for the use of ports and even ship repair facilities. Other western states, including Denmark and the United States, fought wars against them. The Barbary States had conventional frigates, brigs and sloops as well as xebecs and galleys. For example, Algeria had five smaller frigates, three xebecs and seven galleys. Algiers harbour was heavily fortified with over 100 cannon.
For wargamers who like to name their ships, here are a few examples:
Besaret – Line 84 guns
Heybetendaz – Line 74 guns
Nesim – Frigate 50 guns
Iskendedriye – Frigate 44 guns
Melenkay – Brig 18 guns
At different times, the Ottomans fought with and against most of the naval powers. The main protagonists were the Russians. However, on occasion, they were allies against the French, as at Corfu in March 1799 and Ancona in Italy later that year. After being allied with the British in the recovery of Egypt, the Ottomans declared war in 1807. Admiral Sir John Duckworth attacks Istanbul, but after destroying an Ottoman squadron is forced away by shore defences. The USA made several attempts to defeat the Barbary States, finally succeeding in 1815.
Some senior Ottoman commanders were noted as being oblivious to events. In July 1808, HMS Seahorse, a 38-gun frigate, quickly disabled the Badere Zaffere, a 50-gun Ottoman ship. In the absence of a surrender, the British ship continued to bombard killing or wounding most of the crew. The Ottoman captain who had smoked his pipe through the whole engagement was prevented by his officers from blowing the ship up.
Napoleonic naval wargaming has not been a popular period. Models have been very fiddly to build and rules often over complicated. Warlord’s new Black Seas game has opened up the period with a wide range of models and straightforward rules, which make the period playable. Warlord kits do not have a good reputation and their 1st rate ships continue this tradition. However, the 3rd rate and below models are in plastic and generally go together pretty well. The German firm, Hagen Miniatures, do metal xebecs and gunboats which work for the Ottomans and their Barbary Coast allies.
The reforming Sultan Selim III inherited a rebuilding programme, which used modern British and French designs to construct a fleet of 22 ships of the line, 15 frigates and many smaller ships. This was both a blue sea navy and gunboats to operate on the great rivers of the empire. He appointed Kucuk Huseyin as Kapitan Pasha and attracted officers and technicians from abroad as well as reintroducing conscription and tackling corruption. By 1800, the fleet had 30 ships of the line and 50 frigates and brigs.
The war against Russia resulted in funds being diverted to the army, and the navy once again went into decline. Sultan Mahmud came to the throne in 1808 and strengthened the navy so it could once again challenge the Russians in the Black Sea.
Ottoman ships were mostly of French design, although they had more headroom below deck to allow for the turbans of officers! More traditional eastern designs were used for coastal and river warfare, including oar-powered galleys. In 1799 the flagship, the Sultan Selim, mounted 120 forty-two pounders and at least ten more of smaller calibre, with a crew of 1400 men. The reforms included a naval academy and a system of ranks based more on ability than bribery.
Pictures of Ottoman ships show a variety of colour schemes. A description by a British naval officer visiting in 1799, refers to yellow as the predominant colour on both sides. Others refer to black or red trimming. It is reasonable to conclude, that like other fleets of the time, there was no standard colour scheme.
Sailors came mostly from the Ottoman Empire’s Greek subjects, who were as good as any in the world. However, the weakness of the officer corps made fleet manoeuvre difficult and so the Ottomans choose to defend inlets, swinging their ships on the anchor chains. Fleets were often supplemented by large numbers of oared gunboats. Manpower was also an emphasis in river warfare. From contemporary pictures it looks like opposing fleets crashed through each other to fire broadsides and then grapple. Scimitar armed Turks were much feared by their contemporaries in boarding actions.
Marines were provided by the 31st Orta of Janissaries, supplemented by two units of naval riflemen known as Galangis. Other janissary units also had naval insignia, including the 88th, 8th Boluk and 56th Cemaat ortas. It is possible that these primarily served on river flotillas.
The ship’s captain was the Rais, assisted by junior officers known as Mulazim. There was no specific naval uniform, with levend sailors being dressed like their land equivalents. The 31st Jannissary Orta wore blue coats. Officers could be distinguished by gold embroidery and elaborate weaponry.
The Ottomans could also call upon irregular naval forces, particularly the Barbary Corsairs. The British allied with them for the use of ports and even ship repair facilities. Other western states, including Denmark and the United States, fought wars against them. The Barbary States had conventional frigates, brigs and sloops as well as xebecs and galleys. For example, Algeria had five smaller frigates, three xebecs and seven galleys. Algiers harbour was heavily fortified with over 100 cannon.
For wargamers who like to name their ships, here are a few examples:
Besaret – Line 84 guns
Heybetendaz – Line 74 guns
Nesim – Frigate 50 guns
Iskendedriye – Frigate 44 guns
Melenkay – Brig 18 guns
At different times, the Ottomans fought with and against most of the naval powers. The main protagonists were the Russians. However, on occasion, they were allies against the French, as at Corfu in March 1799 and Ancona in Italy later that year. After being allied with the British in the recovery of Egypt, the Ottomans declared war in 1807. Admiral Sir John Duckworth attacks Istanbul, but after destroying an Ottoman squadron is forced away by shore defences. The USA made several attempts to defeat the Barbary States, finally succeeding in 1815.
Some senior Ottoman commanders were noted as being oblivious to events. In July 1808, HMS Seahorse, a 38-gun frigate, quickly disabled the Badere Zaffere, a 50-gun Ottoman ship. In the absence of a surrender, the British ship continued to bombard killing or wounding most of the crew. The Ottoman captain who had smoked his pipe through the whole engagement was prevented by his officers from blowing the ship up.
Napoleonic naval wargaming has not been a popular period. Models have been very fiddly to build and rules often over complicated. Warlord’s new Black Seas game has opened up the period with a wide range of models and straightforward rules, which make the period playable. Warlord kits do not have a good reputation and their 1st rate ships continue this tradition. However, the 3rd rate and below models are in plastic and generally go together pretty well. The German firm, Hagen Miniatures, do metal xebecs and gunboats which work for the Ottomans and their Barbary Coast allies.
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Further Reading
Johnson - The Crescent Among the Eagles - 1994
Flaherty - The Napoleonic Ottoman Army - 2019
Mikaberidze - Russo-Turkish War of 1806-12 - 2002
Bevis - Tangier to Tehran - 1994
Nicholle - Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774 - 1983
Johnson - The Crescent Among the Eagles - 1994
Flaherty - The Napoleonic Ottoman Army - 2019
Mikaberidze - Russo-Turkish War of 1806-12 - 2002
Bevis - Tangier to Tehran - 1994
Nicholle - Armies of the Ottoman Turks 1300-1774 - 1983
